Consequentialism

Lore & Background

The term consequentialism was coined by G. E. M. However, the meaning of the word has changed since Anscombe used it: in her original sense, she placed J. S. Mill in the nonconsequentialist camp and W. D. Ross in the consequentialist camp, whereas contemporary usage classifies them the other way round. This shift is due to changes in the meaning of the word, not to changes in perceptions of their views. Consequentialism holds that an act is right if and only if it, or the rule under which it falls, will produce, will probably produce, or is intended to produce, a greater balance of good over evil than any available alternative. Different theories define moral goods differently, with chief candidates including pleasure, absence of pain, satisfaction of preferences, and broader notions of the 'general good'. The concept is exemplified by the aphorism 'the end justifies the means', erroneously attributed to Machiavelli or attributed to Ovid. Some argue that consequentialist and deontological theories are not necessarily mutually exclusive. T. M. Scanlon advances the idea that human rights can only be justified with reference to the consequences of having those rights. Robert Nozick argued for a mostly consequentialist theory with inviolable 'side-constraints'. Derek Parfit argued that rule consequentialism, Kantian deontology, and contractualism would all end up prescribing the same behavior when properly understood.

Reader's Guide

Consequentialism is a foundational framework in moral philosophy, shaping debates about right action across centuries. Its significance lies in its focus on outcomes as the ultimate moral criterion, challenging deontological and virtue-based approaches. The theory's flexibility is evident in its various forms: hedonistic utilitarianism, which aggregates happiness; preference utilitarianism, which maximizes satisfaction of preferences; rule consequentialism, which selects rules based on their consequences; and state consequentialism, the world's earliest form, dating back to the 5th century BCE, which evaluates actions by their contribution to a state's welfare. The term itself has a contested history, with Anscombe's original classification differing from modern usage. Consequentialism's legacy includes ongoing debates about its coherence, as seen in objections to rule consequentialism, and attempts to reconcile it with deontology, as in Nozick's side-constraints or Scanlon's justification of rights. Its influence extends to practical ethics, where thinkers like Peter Singer apply preference utilitarianism to contemporary issues.

Did You Know?

• Anscombe originally placed J. S. Mill in the nonconsequentialist camp and W. D. Ross in the consequentialist camp, opposite to modern classification.
• State consequentialism, dating back to the 5th century BCE, is considered the world's earliest form of consequentialism.
• Derek Parfit argued that rule consequentialism, Kantian deontology, and contractualism would all prescribe the same behavior when properly understood.